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ALT is an abbreviation of Alanine Transaminase, It is also called SGPT, (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase). ALT is basically an enzyme which is found in liver and involved in various metabolic reactions. Its normal blood value is up to 45 international unit. High ALT level in the blood indicates that there is something wrong going on in the liver. Something is damaging the liver cells which result in the release of ALT in the bloodstream. This Liver Injury can be acute or chronic. Read Also: Difference between drug induced and pathological Liver injury . High level of ALT represents structural damage in the liver. Liver parenchymal cells which form the architecture of the liver contain ALT and their damage result in the release of enzymes, including the ALT. The damage may result from various causes. Some of the common causes are listed below. 1. Viral infections: Hepatitis A, B, C and E viruses all attack the liver parenchymal cells and damage them. This result in re...

(Arterial blood gases) ABG report tells us about the level of hypoxemia and acid-base balance. A medical student must know how to interpret arterial blood gases (ABG Report) correctly and accurately and he should also know the procedure of taking the sample for arterial blood gases test. Standard Procedure: To take the arterial blood sample; 1. first of all heparinize the syringe with 0.1 ml heparin to prevent clot formation. 2. Draw blood from the radial or brachial artery (femoral artery if none of these is accessible). Prevent Air bubble otherwise, it will affect the results. 3. Immersed the sample in an ice bag immediately to prevent metabolism that can decrease PO2 and increase PCO2 Normal Values: pH: 7.35-7.45 PO2 (partial pressure of oxygen): 75-100 mm of Hg PCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide): 36-46 mm of Hg HCO3 (bicarbonate ion): 22-26 mmol/L O2 saturation: 95-100% (oxygen saturation below 90 per cent produces cyanosis in a person who has a normal level o...

Widal test. (tube dilution Agglutination test) In widal test antibody titre against different salmonella antigen (known) is measured by dilution of serum The body produces antibodies against H, O, and Vi antigens of Salmonella typhi and paratyphi A, B, C during 2nd and 3rd week. The Widal test is negative during the first week but still done to make a baseline of antibody titre.  In the second week if there is four times rise in titre from the baseline then Widal test is positive. (Indication of typhoid). Method Put known antigens of salmonella into three different test tubes and mark them as O, H, and Vi, Then aspire blood from the patient and make its serum. Then this unknown serum is diluted as 1/180, 1/160, 1/360 Then look for agglutination by putting drops one by one starting from 1/160 into each test tube. That diluted serum 1/160, 1/180, 1/360 which caused agglutination is the antibody titre for that specific antigen (o, H, Vi) Results: Raised antibody ...

FINE Needle Aspiration – FNA – Procedure and Contraindications Puncture Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) is done to get a sample of cells of nodules or masses for microscopic examination. This test is indicated for the evaluation of nodules, masses or p alpable mass which has been visualized by previous imaging techniques. Usually, the examination is limited to superficial tumours. Nodules are found more commonly on mammary gland and the thyroid and this technique is used to take few cells out of the nodules for microscopic examination The cells are placed on microscope slides and examined by a cytopathologist (person studying alterations in the cell). Recent studies showed that this method gives around 75% sensitivity and specificity of over 90%. Also having a rate of false-positive results of approximately 01%, and false-negative results of 25 %. The false-negative results are more common because the needle was not inserted directly into  cancer . The needle may also have punched...

Biochemical assays for tumour-associated enzymes, hormones and other tumour markers in the blood are not diagnostic but help in determining the effectiveness of therapy. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is considered as tumour markers and is raised in the various tumour but it is also raised in various other benign conditions. Therefore, the Raised concentration of CEA in the blood is not a hallmark of Cancer. Causes of the high level of Carcinoembryonic antigen in Blood: 1) Malignant tumours: a) Breast cancer b) Colorectal carcinoma. c) Gastric cancer d) Pancreatic cancer 2. Benign conditions a) Hepatitis b) Alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver d) Crohn's disease e) Ulcerative colitis f) Healthy smokers

TORCH Kit Torch Test is used to detect antibodies against various infectious agents and their concentration in blood. antibodies are the protein molecules that the body produces in response to an infectious agent. These antibodies help to kill or eradicate the infectious agent out of the body. Torch test is sometimes referred to as torch panel. Its name Torch Test is derived from the names of five infectious agents. 1. T oxoplasma gondi 2. O ther infectious agents 3. R ubella 4. C ytomegalovirus 5. H erpes simplex virus. Other infections which are tested usually include: Hepatitis B, Syphilis, Epstein bar virus, Coxsackie virus, Varicella zoster virus and human parvovirus. TORCH Test is a screening test. Its purpose is to find out whether the newborn has got an infection from either of the above mention organisms or not. Usually, a blood sample is taken to measure the concentration of antibodies. But sometimes other specimens (e.g urine, CSF or tissue )  ...

Streptococcus Pneumonia: Morphology : Shape : The individual organism is lancet-shaped. Arrangement:

Positive quellung test under microscope Laboratory Diagnostic Tests. (Laboratory diagnosis Of Streptococcus pneumoniae Specimens : Blood, sputum, pus or CSF. Tests: 1. Microscopy: Gram stain smear of rusty sputum is seen under a microscope. Gram-positive diplococci, neutrophils, and red blood cells Can be identified. Capsule can be demonstrated by "Negrosin staining or Indian Ink." 2. Culture: Specimens are cultured on blood agar and chocolate agar , It causes alpha hemolysis on blood agar. It forms small round colonies, at first dome-shaped, later develop a central plateau with an elevated rim in chocolate agar . 3. Quellung's Test. It is the capsule swelling test. Fresh emulsified sputum is mixed with specific anti-capsular polysaccharide antibodies. If capsule swells markedly it means test is positive. 4. Optochin Disk Test. This test differentiates between alpha hemolytic pneumococci and alpha hemolytic streptococcus viridans. The optochin disk is laid down on...

Triple Sugar Iron Medium (TSI medium) This medium is prepared in a test tube, the upper portion is called slant and the lower portion is called butt. Composition: 1. Glucose, 2. Sucrose 3. Lactose 4. Ferrous sulphate 5. Tissue extracts (proteins) 6. Phenol red (indicator) Container: Test tube. Colour: Red before reaction (alkaline) yellow after reaction (acidic) Black after hydrogen sulphide gas production due to the formation of FeS. Consistency : Solid medium Uses: This medium is used to differentiate Salmonella and Shigella from other enteric gram-negative rods in stool culture. Micro-organisms/bacteria are cultured. Salmonella and shigella produce:  a). Alkaline slant (red) b). Acidic but with no gas (yellow without bubbles) c) salmonella produces hydrogen sulphide gas but Shigella don't. Other enteric Gram-negative rods produce: a. Acidic slant (yellow) b. Acidic butt with gas ( yellow with bubbles) e.g E. coli Table: Reactions shown by vari...

MacConkey's Medium: Composition: 1. Nutrient agar 2. Bile salt (sodium taurocholate) 3. Lactose 4. Neutral red (indicator) Container : Petri dish Colour : Transparent, reddish-brown or pink colour Consistency: Solid medium. Micro-organism cultured? It is used for: 1. growth and isolation of bacteria of family Enterobacteriaceae and to differentiate between lactose fermenters, non-lactose fermenters and late lactose fermenters. Lactose Fermenters: form pink colonies, for example; E. coli, Klebsiella species, Enterobacter species Non-lactose fermenters: from colorless colonies, for example, shigella species except shigella sonnie, salmonella species, proteus species and pseudomanas species. Late lactose fermenters: form pink colonies after 2-3 days of inoculation. for example, Vibrio cholera, Serratia, Citrobacter, Shigella sonnei. Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) m...

Blood Agar: Composition: 1. Sterile defibrinated blood 5-10 % 2. Melted agar 3. Beef extract 4. Peptone water 5. NaCl container: Petri dish Colour: Opaque red. Consistency: Solid medium. Micro-organism Cultured. This media is used to determine the haemolytic properties of bacteria. 1. Complete (beta) hemolytic bacteria :- Streptococcus pyogenes, 2. Incomplete (alpha) hemolytic bacteria: - Streptococcus viridans, Streptococcus pneumoniae 3. No (gamma) hemolysis:- Staphylococcus Albus, staphylococcus citrus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, etc. Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) medium f) Loeffler's Coagulated Medium g) Robertson's cooked meat medium ) Tripple sugar iron (TSI) medium i) Christensen's Urea Medium j) Simmon Citrate Medium k) Peptone Water l) Nutrient Broth m) Sugar Media

Chocolate Agar: Composition: its composition is the same as blood agar . that is 1. sterile defibrinated blood 5-10 % 2. Melted agar 3. Beef extract, 4. Peptone water 5. NaCl A blood agar plate is put in boiling water for about 1 hour until its colour changes from red to chocolate brown. Heating converts Haemoglobin into hematin. Container: petri dish. Colour : Opaque Chocolate colour Consistency: solid medium Micro-organism Cultured. 1. Haemophilus influenzae 2. Neisseria gonorrheae 3. Neisseria meningitidis 4. streptococcus pneumoniae. Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) medium f) Loeffler's Coagulated Medium g) Robertson's cooked meat medium h) Triple sugar iron (TSI) medium i) Christensen's Urea Medium j) Simmon Citrate Medium k) Peptone Water l) Nutrient Broth m) Sugar Media.

Loeffler's Coagulated Medium: Composition: 1. Ox, sheep or horse serum 2. 1% glucose broth Container: Test tube. Colour: milky white Consistency: Solid medium Micro-organism/bacteria cultured: Corynebacterium diphtheria Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) medium f) Loeffler's Coagulated Medium g) Robertson's cooked meat medium h) Triple sugar iron (TSI) medium i) Christensen's Urea Medium j) Simmon Citrate Medium k) Peptone Water l) Nutrient Broth m) Sugar Media.

Christensen's Urea Medium: Composition 1. Monopotassium phosphate 2. Agar 3. Phenol red 4. Peptone Water 5. NaCl. Container: Test tube Colour: Pink before reaction. red after urea-splitting in urease positive organisms. Consistency. Liquid Medium Uses and bacteria cultured. To demonstrate urease activity by Proteus species Morganella morganii and Helicobacter pylori. Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) medium f) Loeffler's Coagulated Medium g) Robertson's cooked meat medium h) Triple sugar iron (TSI) medium i) Christensen's Urea Medium j) Simmon Citrate Medium k) Peptone Water l) Nutrient Broth m) Sugar Media.

Simmon Citrate Midium: Composition: 1. Mineral Salt solution (bactor agar) 2. Bactro-bron thymol blue (indicator) Container : Test tube. Colour: 1. Green before reaction 2. Blue after reaction Consistency: Liquid medium Bacteria cultured: It is used to demonstrate citrate utilization by; Klebsiella and Proteus species. Important Culture Media: a) Nutrient agar b) Blood agar c)Chocolate agar d)McConkey's Medium e) Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) medium f) Loeffler's Coagulated Medium g) Robertson's cooked meat medium h) Triple sugar iron (TSI) medium i) Christensen's Urea Medium j) Simmon Citrate Medium k) Peptone Water l) Nutrient Broth m) Sugar Media.